In many cases, researchers may still choose the simpler approach of inferring sleep–wake patterns from some kind of measurement of movement activity ( Stuber et al., 2015 Rattenborg et al., 2017). However, the datalogger methodology and necessary surgical procedures for implantation of brain electrodes required for this approach may not be the first or preferred choice for every study. Recent technological developments allow for detailed studies of sleep–wake patterns and sleep architecture based on recordings of brain activity even in freely moving animals ( Vyssotski et al., 2006 Rattenborg et al., 2017 Massot et al., 2019). However, activity scores cannot reliably predict REM sleep and sleep architecture. In conclusion, accelerometry-based activity scores can serve as a good estimate for time awake or even the specific time spent in NREM sleep. However, correlation between activity scores and time spent in REM sleep was weak. Overall, hourly activity scores also showed significant inverse correlation with the time spent in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Experimental sleep deprivation had no effect on the strength of the correlation between activity scores and EEG-based wake time. During daytime in winter, there were many instances where the birds were awake but not moving. Furthermore, the correlations between activity and waking during daytime were weaker in winter than in summer. In winter, the correlations between activity and waking time were weaker for daytime than for night-time. Hourly activity scores strongly correlated with EEG-determined time awake, but the strength of the correlation varied with phase of the day and season. In summer, activity was more spread out over the 24 h cycle. In winter, the geese had pronounced daily rhythms in rest and activity, with most activity occurring during the daytime. In the current paper, we analyzed how accelerometry-based activity data correlate with electroencephalogram (EEG)-based sleep–wake patterns in barnacle geese under seminatural conditions across different seasons. However, polysomnography in the wild may not always be an option or first choice and some studies may need to rely on rest–activity recordings as a proxy for sleep and wakefulness. Studies in non-model animal species in their natural habitat might provide more insight into the evolution and function of sleep. Yet, the function of sleep remains an enigma. Sleep is a widely spread phenomenon in the animal kingdom and is thought to serve important functions.
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